Thoughts on Government

John Adams

April 1776

Written as a letter to guide the colonies in forming new governments—a practical handbook for creating a republic.

The End of Government

We ought to consider what is the end of government, before we determine which is the best form. Upon this point all speculative politicians will agree, that the happiness of society is the end of government, as all divines and moral philosophers will agree that the happiness of the individual is the end of man.

"The happiness of society is the end of government"

From this principle it will follow, that the form of government which communicates ease, comfort, security, or, in one word, happiness, to the greatest number of persons, and in the greatest degree, is the best.

Republican Government

All sober inquirers after truth, ancient and modern, pagan and Christian, have declared that the happiness of man, as well as his dignity, consists in virtue. Confucius, Zoroaster, Socrates, Mahomet, not to mention authorities really sacred, have agreed in this.

"Fear is the foundation of most governments"

But it is so sordid and brutal a passion, and renders men in whose breasts it predominates so stupid and miserable, that Americans will not be likely to approve of any political institution which is founded on it.

Honor is truly sacred, but holds a lower rank in the scale of moral excellence than virtue. Indeed, the former is but a part of the latter, and consequently has not equal pretensions to support a frame of government productive of human happiness.

The Representative Assembly

"The representative assembly should be in miniature an exact portrait of the people at large"

It should think, feel, reason, and act like them. That it may be the interest of this assembly to do strict justice at all times, it should be an equal representation, or, in other words, equal interests among the people should have equal interests in it.

Great care should be taken to effect this, and to prevent unfair, partial, and corrupt elections.

Separation of Powers

A representative assembly, although extremely well qualified, and absolutely necessary, as a branch of the legislative, is unfit to exercise the executive power, for want of two essential properties, secrecy and despatch.

It is equally unfit for the judicial power, because it is too numerous, too slow, and too little skilled in the laws.

"A people cannot be long free, nor ever happy, whose government is in one assembly"

Let the governor be made by the legislative, annually, or oftener, if you will; let him be the man of moderation, and let him have a free and independent exercise of his judgment, and be made also to feel a dependence upon the people.

The Importance of Laws

"A government of laws, and not of men"

The judges, therefore, should be always men of learning and experience in the laws, of exemplary morals, great patience, calmness, coolness, and attention. Their minds should not be distracted with jarring interests; they should not be dependent upon any man, or body of men.

To these ends, they should hold estates for life in their offices; or, in other words, their commissions should be during good behavior, and their salaries ascertained and established by law.

Education and Virtue

Laws for the liberal education of youth, especially of the lower class of people, are so extremely wise and useful, that, to a humane and generous mind, no expense for this purpose would be thought extravagant.

"The foundation of every government is some principle or passion in the minds of the people"

The noblest principles and most generous affections in our nature, then, have the fairest chance to support the noblest and most generous models of government.

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